6. [181] The Apollo 14 astronauts deployed a retroreflector on February 5, 1971, and McDonald Observatory detected it the same day. Some staff members found new positions at Lewis, but hundreds of others were soon out of work. Engineers inspect the inlet of a prototype Hypersonic Research Engine scramjet prior to a test run in Hypersonic Tunnel Facility. [191][192][193] In 2009, a poll held by the United Kingdom's Engineering & Technology magazine found that 25% of those surveyed did not believe that men landed on the Moon. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched their SELENE Moon orbiter on September 14, 2007 (JST), from Tanegashima Space Center. in 2005. In 2002, Alex R. Blackwell of the University of Hawaii pointed out that some photos taken by Apollo astronauts[158] while in orbit around the Moon show the landing sites. It is argued that, because the USSR was unable to do this, the United States should have also been unable to develop the technology to do so. Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}412309N 824059W / 41.38585N 82.68293W / 41.38585; -82.68293. [164] The Intrepid lander descent stage, experiment package (ALSEP), Surveyor 3 spacecraft, and astronaut footpaths are all visible. [146][147] This thesis was the subject of refutation in an article published on Seeker nearly half a year later.[148]. The angle and color of shadows are inconsistent. NASA Plum Brook Station In-Space Propulsion Facility Test Stand Characterization Hot Fire Test A test facility modification to enable small scale altitude propulsion testing at the NASA Glenn Research Center's In-Space Propulsion (ISP) Facility was verified with a hot fire test campaign. Plum Brook Station is the 2590 hectare (6400 acre) field station of NASA Glenn Research Center. Not to be confused with, Claimed motives of the United States and NASA, In 1968, Clarke and Kubrick had collaborated on the film. A resident of Perth, Western Australia, a woman named Una Ronald (a pseudonym created by the authors of the source[70]), said that for two or three seconds she saw a Coca-Cola bottle roll across the lower right quadrant of her television screen that was displaying the live broadcast of the Apollo 11 EVA. The cameras were fitted with a Rseau plate (a clear glass plate with a reticle etched on), making it impossible for any photographed object to appear "in front" of the grid. Follow us on social media to add even more wonder to your day. About fifteen minutes of it were filmed by an amateur 8 mm film camera and these are also available. The criminal conspiracy involved distributing fentanyl and other similar substances from Canada and China into the United States, resulting in 15 overdoses, four of which were fatal. Measuring 100' in diameter and 122' high, it was ideal for testing the Mars lander systems and International Space Station hardware. The only real success story in terms of actual customers was, and still is, the Space Power Facility. In the 1970s the center expanded the scope of its work into new areas, such as renewable energy sources. Engineers carefully deactivated the facilities in such a way that they could be restored in the future. The launch and splashdown would be real but the spacecraft would stay in Earth orbit and fake footage broadcast as "live from the Moon." One rebuttal by Sibrel to this claim is that NASA had compartmentalized all of the work on the Apollo program. The war was one of several federal budget items with which NASA had to compete; NASA's budget peaked in 1966, and fell by 42% by 1972. Typical delays in communication were about 0.5 seconds. 3. However, five hours before transmission they were told to stand down. Conspiracists see this as evidence that they never existed. Some former Apollo personnel want to find the tapes for posterity while NASA engineers looking towards future Moon missions believe the tapes may be useful for their design studies. Down in the O&C Building at KSC, the EM-1 Orion spacecraft hardware has almost completed standalone testing. The inspector general recommended NASA create a long-term strategy for either maintaining or disposing of underutilized infrastructure at Plum Brook. This would have allowed for only a small number of people to actually know the truth about faking the Moon landings.[49]. An article titled "Stanley Kubrick and the Moon Hoax" appeared on Usenet in 1995, in the newsgroup "alt.humor.best-of-usenet". Film in the cameras would have been fogged by this radiation. The combination of the Lewis Field and Plum Brook locations comprise over 6,800 acres of land and include 450 research and test facilities. Its walls are 2 feet thick to withstand the blast of powerful . In terms of astronaut/cosmonaut time, the USSR had 534 hours of crewed spaceflight whereas the United States had 1,992 hours. Aside from NASA, a number of groups and individuals tracked the Apollo missions as they happened. [3] The station included several large test facilities besides the reactor, including liquid hydrogen facilities for development and testing of the Centaur upper stage. According to James Longuski, the conspiracy theories are impossible because of their size and complexity. The European Space Agency's SMART-1 uncrewed probe sent back photos of the landing sites, according to Bernard Foing, Chief Scientist of the ESA Science Program. [180] Lick Observatory attempted to detect from Apollo 11's retroreflector while Armstrong and Aldrin were still on the Moon but did not succeed until August 1, 1969. [168], The Apollo program collected 380kg (838lb) of Moon rocks during the six crewed missions. [150], In 2002, NASA granted US$15,000 to James Oberg for a commission to write a point-by-point rebuttal of the hoax claims. 3. The Moon rocks also share the same traits as Soviet samples.[169]. [125], Grumman appears to have destroyed most of its LM documentation,[116][126] but copies of the blueprints for the Saturn V exist on microfilm.[127]. By the time of Apollo 11, the United States had a lead much wider than that. [23] Indeed their article on space exploration describes the Apollo 11 landing as "the third historic event" of the space age, following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, and Yuri Gagarin's flight in 1961. DESIGN OF THE NASA GLENN RESEARCH CENTER'S WORLD-CLASS REVERBERANT ACOUSTIC TEST FACILITY . NASA Glenn Research Center's Plum Brook Station in Sandusky, Ohio, houses the world's largest, most powerful space environment simulation facilities, most powerful spacecraft acoustic test chamber, and highest capacity and most powerful spacecraft shaker system. The Apollo 15 retroreflector was deployed on July 31, 1971, and was detected by McDonald Observatory within a few days. Moon landing conspiracy theoriesclaim that some or all elements of the Apollo programand the associated Moon landingswere hoaxesstaged by NASA, possibly with the aid of other organizations. Plum Brooks newest addition, the Combined Effects Chamber, which was designed to simulate the conditions found on the surface of the Moon or Mars, had never been used. Enlargement of a poor-quality 1998 scan both the crosshair and part of the red stripe have "bled out", Enlargement of a higher-quality 2004 scan crosshair and red stripe visible, David Scott salutes the American flag during the Apollo 15 mission. Conspiracists often use this evidence to suggest that objects were "pasted" over the photographs, and hence obscure the reticle. The deaths were an accident. [176][177][178] If NASA had used similar robot technology, then between 300 and 2,000 robot missions would have been needed to collect the current amount of Moon rocks that is held by NASA. Some of the facilities, most of which date back to the 1960s, are so rundown they require millions of dollars in repairs costs that must be borne by prospective customers who show no sign of materializing, the IG wrote. After that was cancelled in 1961, it became the primary NASA facility for space-related nuclear energy research and development. On this page: Acoustics Facilities Combustion Facilities Components Facilities [143] It has been claimed that when 2001 was in post-production in early 1968, NASA secretly approached Kubrick to direct the first three Moon landings. For example, 2001 was released before the first Apollo landing and Kubrick's depiction of the Moon's surface differs greatly from its appearance in the Apollo footage. 6. This suggests that artificial lights were used. 2. The reactor first went critical on 14 June 1961, and was finally shut down on 5 January 1973. [28] The Soviet Union tracked the Apollo missions at the Space Transmissions Corps, which was "fully equipped with the latest intelligence-gathering and surveillance equipment. We will get in touch with you shortly. NASA responds to Bill Kaysing's book, We Never Went to the Moon, by identifying one of his claims of fraud regarding the lack of a crater left on the Moon's surface by the landing of the lunar module, and refuting it with facts about the soil and cohesive nature of the surface of the Moon. Kubrick also used some 50mm f/0.7 lenses that were left over from a batch made by Zeiss for NASA. NASA's Nuclear Frontier: The Plum Brook Reactor Facility, 1941-2002 In 1953, President Eisenhower delivered a speech called "Atoms for Peace" to the United Nations General Assembly. The quality of the photographs is implausibly high. . The MythBusters crew tested many of the conspiracists' claims. However, still photos of the original SSTV image are available (see photos). NASA Glenn's Space Power Facility in Sandusky, Ohio, contains the world's largest space simulation chamber. One passage on how Kubrick was supposedly coerced into the conspiracy reads: NASA further leveraged their position by threatening to publicly reveal the heavy involvement of Mr. Kubrick's younger brother, Raul, with the American Communist Party. The Plum Brook Reactor was a NASA 60 megawatt water-cooled and moderated research nuclear reactor,[1][2] located in Sandusky, Ohio, 50mi west of the NASA Glenn Research Center (at that time the NASA Lewis Research Center) in Cleveland, of which it was organizationally a part. The tapes contain the original and highest quality video feed from the Apollo 11 landing. While the LRO images have been enjoyed by the scientific community as a whole, they have not done anything to convince conspiracists that the landings happened. Also, six of the twelve Apollo astronauts who flew to the Moon without landing between 1968 and 1972 are still alive. The astronauts could not have survived the trip because of exposure to radiation from the Van Allen radiation belt and galactic ambient radiation (see radiation poisoning and health threat from cosmic rays). 2. At a press conference Thursday, Marvel Studio officials said Plum Brook played a vital role in bringing the movie to Ohio. 4. Instead, far from calling the landings a hoax, the third edition (19701979) of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (which was translated into English between 1974 and 1983 by Macmillan Publishers, and was later made available online by TheFreeDictionary.com[22]) contained many articles reporting the landings as factual, such as its article on Neil Armstrong. Proving a hoax would have been a huge propaganda win for the Soviets. We hypothesized that (a) endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories is positively associated with support for VR, and (b) psychological distress modifies the relationship between COVID-19 conspiracy theories and support for VR. In 1965, the United States started to achieve many firsts (such as the first successful space rendezvous), which were important steps in a mission to the Moon. The program demonstrated several technologies employed by large wind turbines today. [7] Despite having no knowledge of rockets or technical writing,[8] Kaysing was hired as a senior technical writer in 1956 by Rocketdyne, the company that built the F-1 engines used on the Saturn V rocket. [120], In July 2009, NASA indicated that it must have erased the original Apollo 11 Moon footage years ago so that it could re-use the tape. Moon-landing conspiracists claim that observatories and the Hubble Space Telescope should be able to photograph the landing sites. This would have been an intolerable embarrassment to Mr. Kubrick, especially since the release of Dr. Strangelove. Footprints in the Moondust are unexpectedly well preserved, despite the lack of moisture. Two of the above, X-15 pilot Mike Adams and MOL pilot Robert Lawrence, had no connection with the civilian crewed space program that oversaw the Apollo missions. [159] "Given SMART-1's initial high orbit, however, it may prove difficult to see artifacts," said Foing in an interview on space.com. [117][118], Dr. David R. Williams (NASA archivist at Goddard Space Flight Center) and Apollo 11 flight director Eugene F. Kranz both acknowledged that the original high-quality Apollo 11 telemetry data tapes are missing. We depend on ad revenue to craft and curate stories about the worlds hidden wonders. "[16] In A Man on the Moon,[17] first published in 1994, Andrew Chaikin mentions that at the time of Apollo 8's lunar-orbit mission in December 1968,[18] similar conspiracy ideas were already in circulation.[19]. [48] With the number of people involved, and noting the Watergate scandal, Jillette noted that someone would have outed the hoax by now. [151], In 2004, Martin Hendry and Ken Skeldon of the University of Glasgow were awarded a grant by the UK-based Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council to investigate Moon landing conspiracy theories. [142] The fact sheet is particularly blunt and regards the idea of faking the Moon landings to be preposterous and outlandish. Spacecraft Snoops Apollo Moon Sites", "World's biggest telescope to prove Americans really walked on Moon", "How to find Apollo 11's landing site on the Moon", "The "halo" area around Apollo 15 landing site observed by Terrain Camera on SELENE (KAGUYA)", "Chandrayaan sends images of Apollo 15 landing", "Chandrayaan's moon findings: Water, rocks and traces of Apollo", "China publishes high-resolution full moon map", "Martian Meteorite Launch: High-Speed Ejecta from Small Craters", "Lunar South Pole-Aitken Sample Return (2002)", "Sample Return Mission to the South Pole Aitken Basin", New Views of the Moon II: Understanding the Moon Through the Integration of Diverse Datasets, American Association for the Advancement of Science, "NASA's LRO Team Helps Track Laser Signals to Russian Rover Mirror", "Landing a Man on the Moon: The Public's View", Institution of Engineering and Technology, "Man on the Moon: A Case of Mass Brainwashing", "Attitudes Toward Space Exploration Ipsos Poll on Behalf of C-SPAN Belief in Authenticity of the 1969 Moon Landing", Bruce M. Nash (Executive Producer, Writer), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1141029494, This page was last edited on 23 February 2023, at 00:31. However, NASA canceled the commission later that year, after complaints that the book would dignify the accusations. And at the Mechanical Vibration Facility, spacecraft launch conditions can be tested in what is the worlds most powerful spacecraft shaker system. Even as late as 2001, the Fox television network documentary Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon? They point to oddities in photos and films taken on the Moon. She also said that several letters appeared in The West Australian discussing the Coca-Cola bottle incident within ten days of the lunar landing.[71]. [185] Officials of the Fox network said that such skepticism rose to about 20% after the February 2001 airing of their network's television special, Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?, seen by about 15 million viewers. He earned a bachelors degree in public communications from the American University in Washington. Some selections of restored footage in high-definition have been made available on the NASA website. [44] They show that NASA's portrayal of the Moon landing is fundamentally accurate, allowing for such common mistakes as mislabeled photos and imperfect personal recollections. NASA Official: Anne Mills It also received a better picture than NASA's antenna at Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex. Copies of those tapes have been found.[120]. [151][152] In November 2002, Peter Jennings said "NASA is going to spend a few thousand dollars trying to prove to some people that the United States did indeed land men on the Moon," and "NASA had been so rattled, [they] hired [somebody] to write a book refuting the conspiracy theorists." A propulsion engine testbed that paved the way for the Space Shuttle launch sits without recognition at this rocket center. One of the old tapes has been sent to NASA for analysis. [166][167] The Indian Space Research Organisation launched their uncrewed lunar probe on September 8, 2008 (IST), from Satish Dhawan Space Centre. The Parkes Observatory in Australia was billed to the world for weeks as the site that would be relaying communications from the first moonwalk. Meanwhile Plum Brook continued worked to complete several tests during this period, including testing of the Centaur Standard Shroud for the upcoming Viking mission. ), Conspiracy theorists claim that NASA faked the landings to avoid humiliation and to ensure that it continued to get funding. Longuski argues that it would have been much easier to really land on the Moon than to generate such a huge conspiracy to fake the landings. Rule 2 does not apply when replying to this stickied comment.. Rule 2 does apply throughout the rest of this thread.. What this means: Please keep any "meta" discussion directed at specific users, mods, or r/conspiracy in general in this comment chain only.. [137] Conspiracy theorists claim that the computers during the time of the Moon landings would not have been advanced enough to allow for human space travel to the Moon and back;[138] they similarly claim that other contemporary technology (radio transmission, radar, and other instrumentation) was likewise insufficient for the task.[139]. You should see the reCAPTCHA field below. BROOK PARK, Ohio NASA proposed a budget on Monday of $802.4 million for Glenn Research Center in fiscal 2021, down from an unofficial 2020 budget of $945 million. Furthermore, most are more than 200 million years older than the oldest Earth rocks. Only about 30kg (66lb) of lunar meteorites have been found on Earth thus far, despite private collectors and governmental agencies worldwide searching for more than 20 years.[174]. The fact sheet was reissued on February 14, 2001, the day before Fox television's broadcast of Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon? Covering the business and politics of space. Credit: NASA. [117] The Apollo 11 telemetry tapes were different from the telemetry tapes of the other Moon landings because they contained the raw television broadcast. By 1977 the Hare Krishna magazine Back to Godhead called the landings a hoax, claiming that, since the Sun is 150millionkm (93millionmi) away, and "according to Hindu mythology the Moon is 800,000 miles [1,300,000km] farther away than that", the Moon would be nearly 151millionkm (94millionmi) away; to travel that span in 91 hours would require a speed of more than a million miles per hour, "a patently impossible feat even by the scientists' calculations. Whether funds continue to pour into Plum Brook Station remains to be seen. NASA has budgeted two SLS launches, one in 2018 and one in 2021, and will rely on a modified Delta 4 cryogenic upper stage for both missions. The Space Power Facility (SPF) at the NASA Glenn Research Center's (GRC) Plum Brook Station in Sandusky, Ohio is already the home of the world's largest thermal vacuum chamber. Because von Braun was a former SS officer (though one who had been detained by the Gestapo),[170] the documentary film Did We Go? In addition, safety officials considered several sites to be hazards. By 1975 there were only a handful of NASA employees left at Plum Brook Station to supervise the contractors that maintained the facilities. The radio telescope at Parkes Observatory in Australia was able to receive the telemetry from the Moon at the time of the Apollo 11 moonwalk. In December 1972 NASA canceled all of its nuclear propulsion and power programs, resulting in the closure of Plum Brook Station [today, the Neil Armstrong Test Facility]. Follow us on Twitter to get the latest on the world's hidden wonders. [182] Smaller retroreflectors were also put on the Moon by the Russians; they were attached to the uncrewed lunar rovers Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2. The Daily Telegraph published a story in 2002 saying that European astronomers at the Very Large Telescope (VLT) would use it to view the landing sites. The Space Power Facility has a recent history of attracting commercial customers, too. On this page: Plum Brook Station Closure Standby Years Demolition of the Sites Those who believe the Moon landings were faked offer several theories about the motives of NASA and the United States government. In 1985 the Office of Management and Budget recommended that NASA relinquish control of Plum Brook Station. Mass media have a terrible impact on people who lack guidance. In northern Ohio, the glorious past of America's trains is on full display. The Moon's surface during the daytime is so hot that camera film would have melted. For much of the early stages of the Space Race, the USSR was ahead of the United States, yet in the end, the USSR was never able to fly a crewed spacecraft to the Moon, let alone land one on the surface. But going to the Moon would be risky and expensive, as exemplified by President John F. Kennedy famously stating in a 1962 speech that the United States chose to go because it was hard. [119] A crude, real-time scan conversion of the SSTV signal was done in Australia before it was broadcast worldwide. M113751661L", "Apollo Moon flags still standing, images show", "American Flags From Apollo Missions Still Standing", "The Flat-out Truth: Earth Orbits? Rocket engines are the dark structures at the bottom center, The launch of a Titan II, burning hypergolic Aerozine-50/N2O4, 1.9MN (430,000lbf) of thrust. [13][14], In 1980, the Flat Earth Society accused NASA of faking the landings, arguing that they were staged by Hollywood with Walt Disney sponsorship, based on a script by Arthur C. Clarke and directed by Stanley Kubrick. Technically, this allowed the mothballed test stands to be reactivated within 3 months. The NASA Space Environmental Test (SET) Project is tasked to develop new environmental test facilities to support NASA's developing space exploration program. Some of the main facilities hadnt been used for years. Neither the Atomic Energy Commission nor NASA Lewis had been given any indication that the nuclear propulsion program would be cancelled until the budget was officially announced on January 5, 1973. NASA Glenn's Space Power Facility in Sandusky, Ohio, contains the world's largest space simulation chamber. Later Apollo missions did not use SSTV. [6], An early and influential book about the subject of a Moon-landing conspiracy, We Never Went to the Moon: America's Thirty Billion Dollar Swindle, was self-published in 1976 by Bill Kaysing, a former US Navy officer with a Bachelor of Arts in English. [24], Conspiracist Bart Sibrel responded, incorrectly asserting that, "the Soviets did not have the capability to track deep space craft until late in 1972, immediately after which, the last three Apollo missions were abruptly canceled. In December 1972 NASA canceled all of its nuclear propulsion and power programs, resulting in the closure of Plum Brook Station [today, the Neil Armstrong Test Facility]. "[196][197], James Oberg of ABC News said that the conspiracy theory is taught in Cuban schools and wherever Cuban teachers are sent. The US$230,000 restoration project took months to complete and did not include sound quality improvements. 5. According to the article, Dr. Richard West said that his team would take "a high-resolution image of one of the Apollo landing sites." In December 2009 NASA issued a final report on the Apollo 11 telemetry tapes. Plum Brook is part of the Glenn Research Center, located some 80 kilometers east in Cleveland. Lewis management also actively solicited other agencies and institutions to use Plum Brook for their test programs. The evidence was noticed by Misha Kreslavsky, of the Department of Geological Sciences at Brown University, and Yuri Shkuratov of the Kharkiv Astronomical Observatory in Ukraine. [9][10] He served as head of the technical publications unit at the company's Propulsion Field Laboratory until 1963. Note the near-transparency of the exhaust, even in air (water is being sprayed up from below), Atlas uses non-hypergolic kerosene (RP-1) fuel which gives a bright and very visible exhaust, 1.5MN (340,000lbf) of thrust, Bright flame from first stage of the Saturn V, burning RP-1, 3. The 1994 book Moon Shot[76] contains an obviously fake composite photo of Alan Shepard hitting a golf ball on the Moon with another astronaut. The astronauts had relied on computers to aid in the Moon missions. By the late 1970s, NASA decided to continue the maintenance of the reactor, Space Power Facility (SPF), Spacecraft Propulsion Research Facility (B2), Cryogenic Propellant Tank Facility (K Site), and the Hypersonic Tunnel Facility (HTF), but ceased protecting the other Rocket Systems Area sites. Here, highly specialized facilities allow NASA and the. Wasn't this a viable consideration? It's home to the antenna that received the first images of Neil Armstrong walking on the moon. The arms of the crosshair are washed-out on the white stripes of the flag (Photo ID: AS15-88-11863), Close-up of the flag, showing washed-out crosshairs. It spotted traces of the Apollo landings. A remote Ohio facility used to test NASA's new moon-bound spacecraft has been renamed for the first astronaut to step foot on the lunar surface. [133][134] For example, in 1973, one year after the final Moon landing, the Xerox Alto was released. Glenn began making plans to remove a number of its old test sites, including the Rocket Systems Area at Plum Brook. The test facilities at Plum Brook are separated by large distances to safely support testing of large quantities of gaseous or cryogenic 2023 Atlas Obscura. [105], 4. 1. As a result, Lewis partnered with the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) to construct a series of experimental large horizontal axis wind turbines. [165], On September 1, 2009, India's lunar mission Chandrayaan-1 took photos of the Apollo 15 landing site and tracks of the lunar rovers. 7. The Apollo samples are easily distinguishable from both meteorites and Earth rocks[6] in that they show a lack of hydrous alteration products, they show evidence of having undergone impact events on an airless body, and they have unique geochemical traits. Much third-party evidence for the landings exists, and detailed rebuttals to the hoax claims have been made. There are no stars in any of the photos; the Apollo 11 astronauts also stated in post-mission press conferences that they did not remember seeing any stars during extravehicular activity (EVA). The second stage of the launch rocket or the Lunar Module ascent stage or both made no visible flame. Meanwhile, prospects are even worse for three of Plum Brooks other major testing facilities. Page Editor: Robert Arrighi This suggests that a painted background was used. On the demolition front, although Plum Brook has torn down 18 buildings and structures since 2012 reducing the annual maintenance costs in the process there is still a backlog of repairs Glenn has put off at the Sandusky campus because it does not have the roughly $55 million it would cost to undertake them, according to the IG. Sibrel said that it may have been caused by indoor fans used to cool the astronauts since their spacesuit cooling systems would have been too heavy on Earth. Lowry Digital president Mike Inchalik said that, "this is by far and away the lowest quality" video the company has dealt with. Motivation for the United States to engage the Soviet Union in a Space Race can be traced to the then on-going Cold War. Moreover, even if someone wanted to use the chamber, it is unusable in its current condition, according to the IG. The first was a 100-kW experimental wind turbine at Plum Brook that Lewis researchers erected and operated. 2. Plum Brook is situated on 6,400 acres in Sandusky and is home to some of the world's most powerful space simulation chambers that support the Artemis mission to return to the moon, making this. The site where Michigan launched its first rocket into space lies abandoned in the dense woods along Lake Superior. The Apollo 16 crew could not have survived a big solar flare firing out when they were on their way to the Moon. 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