There is no mention of any standardized cutoffs for adaptive ability, except for mention of the use of scales of social maturity and adaptation in the measurement of adaptive behavior. Consider using a formal rating scale (for example, the Aberrant Behavior Checklist or Adaptive Behavior Scale) to provide baseline levels for the behaviour and a scale (such as the Functional Analysis Screening Tool) to help understand its function. These data are presented in Chapter 5. Table 4-1 shows the principal available adaptive behavior measures that are comprehensive in nature and their characterstics, including age range for use, age range of norm groups, date of publication, available versions, examiner requirements, appropriate scores for use in determining presence of adaptive behavior limitations, and assessed reliability of scores. Click on an item in the set below to see more info. Some caution is needed in interpreting these findings, because the study is small and unrepresentative. There are many different ways to assess . One of the key themes throughout the DSM-IV definition is the cultural aspect of adaptive behavior. However, teachers have limited opportunities to observe all behaviors on the VABS-C and must necessarily provide estimates of behaviors that do not occur in the school context. Greenspan (1999) also has argued for many years that the presence of maladaptive behavior, or mental illness, is irrelevant for the purpose of diagnosing of mental retardation. It may, however, be useful for identifying some of the issues likely to arise in setting a specific numeric cutoff point. Children with special needs might be delayed in these areas. Doll emerged as a leader in the development of a psychometric measure of adaptive behavior, called social maturity at that time. The Adaptive Behavior Inventory (ABIBrown & Leigh, 1986) was designed to reflect the ability of school-age youngsters to meet age-appropriate socio-cultural expectations for personal responsibility (Smith, 1989). The available instruments include indirect assessments, such as rating scales that assess an individual's typical performance of social behaviors based on information from informants, including teachers, parents, and job coaches, as well as instruments that permit direct assessment of the processes that, according to theoretical models of successful social adaptation, underlie the ability to perform situationally appropriate behavior. Social skills: interpersonal skills . For the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School scales (Lambert et al., 1993a) the norming group included 2,074 students (ages 3-21) with mental retardation living in 40 states, and a sample of 1,254 students (ages 3-18) without mental retardation from 44 states. For individuals whose diagnosis is most in question because their measured IQs are near the cutoff, this vital area may determine the presence or absence of mental retardation. ABS-RC:2 norms are not available for adults with typical functioning, and most norm-referenced scores provide comparisons only with adults with developmental disabilities. Principal Comprehensive Adaptive Behavior Measures and Their Characteristics, Correspondence Between SSI Classification Domains and Domains or Subdomains in Prominent Adaptive Behavior Measures, Percentage of People Ages 5-18 Lower Than Two Standard Deviations Below the Mean on the Domains of the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Question Guide for the Assessment of Social-Cognitive Processes, Completion by a professional; or completion by a paraprofessional, with professional supervision (perhaps Class C, not specified), Comprehensive Test of Adaptive Behavior-Revised, -Normative Adaptive Behavior Checklist-Revised (NABC-R) is composed of a subset of CTAB-R items, Completion of NABC-R by a parent or guardian, Completion by a professional; or completion by a paraprofessional, with professional supervision (possibly Class C for & interpretation of scores), Class C; or completion by social worker or educator, Social perception: encoding of social cues. Is the person familiar with and able to think of a variety of strategies that are potentially appropriate for resolving social problems? Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales What it measures: How a child's daily living skills compare to those of other kids his age. To some extent, inclusion of participants representative of the general population, including racial and ethnic minorities, in norming samples should mitigate against biases in scoring of adaptive behavior scales. Checklists may add valuable information and insights, but they are seldom solely sufficient for diagnostic purposes. Table 4-4 presents examples of questions that can guide examiners in eliciting information regarding the three social-cognitive processes reviewed here. Nonetheless, available research on the clinical use of adaptive behavior scales for diagnosis and treatment-related purposes by either school psychologists or community clinical psychologists appears to be relatively sparse and does not focus on groups of people with mental retardation, as such (i.e., Clinger et al., 1988; McNamara et al., 1994; Pearson & Lachar, 1994; Roberts et al., 1993; Voelker et al., 1990; Wolber et al., 1997). Question Guide for the Assessment of Social-Cognitive Processes. Translation is a concern because the comparability of translations of items has seldom been confirmed through back-translation from the translated content to the initial language, or through confirmatory analysis through further retranslation (Craig & Tasse, 1999). For older adolescents, ages 18 to 21, the difficulty level of items often permits identification of either delayed or typical skills. Infants and toddlers may more appropriately be assessed with more specialized measures in most cases. Social cognition encompasses such constructs as social problem solving (Spivack & Shure, 1974), decision making (Hickson & Khemka, 1999), and social and emotional learning (Elias et al., 1997). In order for the assessment to be clinically and scientifically meaningful, it is important that the assessor be sufficiently trained in using and interpreting appropriate instruments. Currently, his research focuses on the association between circadian activity pattern disruptions and depression in older adults, including those who are caregivers for individuals with dementia. These measures also may be validly used, with repeated or periodic administrations, for assessment of changes in status. Nonetheless, there is a rich literature documenting differential outcomes for quality of life, autonomy, and clinical decision making for adaptive behavioral development as measured by existing assessment instruments (Jacobson & Mulick, 1996). Another instrument permits adult client self-report (Harrison & Oakland, 2000a), a promising method that needs further study of its feasibility with clients having IQ scores in the range of 60 to 75 (Millham et al., 1978). The Social Skills Rating Scales (SSRSGresham & Elliott, 1987) is probably the best measure available of social skills adaptation in the school context. The evaluation is done with the purpose of determining whether a person demonstrates sufficient capacity to function independently . A psychologist, social worker, or other professional who has appropriate training in interview techniques must complete these forms. The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABASHarrison & Oakland, 2000a) is the newest of the adaptive behavior measures that has sound psychometric properties. The instrument's structure must guide interpretation. The World Health Organization (1996) also includes a definition of mental retardation in its International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10). However, children who do meet intellectual and functional criteria for mental retardation also are classified as having disabilities other than mental retardation in some schools and in some cases, and not necessarily consistently so (McCullough & Rutenberg, 1988). The domains assessed by adaptive behavior scales, and thus the individual items included on them, depend in part on the context, target age group, and purpose of the measure. Gifted Testing. Currently available instruments typically do not provide sufficient coverage of some aspects of adaptive functioning for adolescents and adults who are functioning in the IQ range of 60 to 75, the range in which diagnostic decisions about mental retardation are most difficult. This information may otherwise be lacking because of inadequacies in existing adaptive behavior measures. Mental Retardation: Determining Eligibility for Social Security Benefits. A number of well-known, often unintentional, response sets are especially applicable to the more structured third-party respondent measures and, to a lesser extent, the less structured approaches (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Cronbach, 1990; Sattler, 1988, 1990). However, this also means that most scales are structured in steps that permit sampling of typical developmental tasks at each age. Commonly used tests of adaptive functioning are described below: Woodcock-Johnson Scales of Independent Behavior: This test measures independent behavior in children. The skills or abilities items may be readily assessed through direct measures of the individual with behavioral tasks, while performance or does-do features can be assessed only through extensive behavioral observations that often are impractical given the breadth of the adaptive behavior construct and the number of relevant settings. Student assessment results from formal, standardized assessment tools are often statistically based and can be very difficult for families to understand. In this fashion, the assessment of social-cognitive processes can become part of a more comprehensive approach to individual assessment that includes information from informants about day-to-day behavior, as well as direct assessment of skills of a social-cognitive nature. The three most common dimensions found were in these broad categories: (1) personal independence, (2) responsibility, i.e., meeting expectations of others or getting along with others in social contexts, and (3) cognitive/academic. Finally, as this chapter is being written, the World Health Organization (WHO) has completed development of ICIDH-2, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (World Health Organization, 2000; see also Post et al., 1999), a functionally based nomenclature. Widaman and McGrew (1996) further argued that agreement on a common set of terms for domains of adaptive behavior (in contrast to the use of or as above) would contribute to a better consensus on the structure of adaptive behavior. . Thus, characteristics of the factor structure of a measure of adaptive behavior have important implications for diagnosis. Through the assessment of strategy generation, researchers have been able to evaluate an individual's fund of social knowledge (i.e., his or her repertoire of social strategies), as well as the ability to adapt to varied social situations by generating situationally appropriate strategies. It is important to note that the Division 33 definition places equal importance on the constructs intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. Their model divides social competence into two overall dimensions: (1) adaptive behavior, which includes the factors contained on most adaptive behavior scales (independent functioning, self-direction, personal responsibility, vocational activity, functional academic skills, physical development) and (2) social skills, including domains that are likely to be most key to identifying mental retardation at the borderline levels (interpersonal behaviors, self-related behaviors, academic-related skills, assertion, peer acceptance, communication skills). As a result, they may become less available for use in disability determinations. It was developed to be consistent with the 10 AAMR adaptive skill domains, and, depending on the weight placed on using the AAMR definition for diagnosis by a clinician, this may be a relevant characteristic. Since the adaptive behaviors that need to be assessed are those found in the context of a broad range of everyday living situations displayed across a wide variety of settings, an assessment of adaptive functioning by direct observation is usually not practical. The result is that the unique aspects and characterization of individuals with mild mental retardation are no longer the basis for differentiating them from more moderately and severely involved individuals. 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